Labor agreements before unions

Apprenticeship agreement, 1827
(Virginia Historical Society, Purchased through the Betty Sams Christian Fund, Call number: Mss2 L9717 a 1)

An apprenticeship was a work contract that was a step above a simple indenture. This agreement obligates the apprentice, Charles Lumsden, to work a term of five years for William Pearman, a clock and watchmaker, who in return would teach "his art, trade, and mystery." The use of a printed form indicates that this was a standard contract.




Advertisement, Richmond Whig, May 29, 1832

In 1832, the Equitable Society of Journeymen Cabinet Makers, an early organization of skilled craftsmen, sought to preserve its central role in furniture making and its apprentice system. In a slave state, that meant—as seen here—resisting the introduction of enslaved labor brought in to assemble shipped-in parts for a cheaper product.

In the 1600s many settlers arrived in Virginia from Europe under contract as indentured servants, obligated to work for their sponsor for a set period of years to pay off their passage. Such indentures contained an ending date, which made them different from slavery—a labor system of unending involuntary servitude.

The Knights of Labor

"District Assembly No. 84, Knights of Labor," boycott notice, c. April 1885
George Ainsley Barksdale Scrapbook, 1861–89
(Virginia Historical Society, Gift of Charles J. Symington through the courtesy of Churchill J. Gibson, Call number: Mss5:7 B2473:1)

In 1885, Haxall Flour Mills of Richmond signed a contract to purchase barrels from the Virginia State Penitentiary shop. Because this would reduce work for local barrel makers, the white coopers union of DA 84 and the black coopers union of DA 92, under the banner of the Knights of Labor, cooperated to organize a boycott of Haxall flour products until the company agreed to stop buying inmate-built barrels. Haxall gave in and canceled the agreement with the penitentiary. The boycott of Haxall Mills ended as a victory for the Knights of Labor.

The 1880s in Virginia saw big growth in industry, but most workers experienced little improvement. Given the competitive politics of the period, the conditions were opportune for organizing labor unions. In 1884, locally formed unions began to affiliate with the first national union, the Knights of Labor. Membership grew rapidly after Knights leader Terence Powderly visited Richmond in January 1885.

The Trade union

Officers of Tobacco Union, Petersburg, c. 1899
From African American Photographs Assembled for 1900 Paris Exposition
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Div., LC-USZ62-51552

After the decline of the Knights of Labor, a new model for labor organization arose. In the Knights, local assemblies were built from local craft unions like the typographers and the coopers. In the new model, local craft unions joined with similar unions from other places to form a larger union. The big craft unions joined together at the national level in 1890 and formed the American Federation of Labor (AFL).

Plumbers Group, 1912
Modern silver print from glass negative by Foster Studio
Accession number: 1991.1.29768

Unions in Society

For thousands of Virginians in the early twentieth century, union activities were a part of their daily lives. Local unions held monthly and sometimes weekly meetings. Big gatherings and parades took place on Labor Day, and the Virginia Federation of Labor held an annual convention.

Social Reform

A young spooler in Roanoke Cotton Mills, May 1911
By Lewis W. Hine
Silver photographic print

At the 1907 Jamestown Exposition, a display by the National Child Labor Committee evoked much response. The exhibition featured photographs, including some much enlarged, like these by NCLC photographer Lewis W. Hine. Virginia laws to regulate child labor were first passed in 1889–90 and then revised in 1902–4, 1908, and 1912–20.
(Records of the National Child Labor Committee, Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Div., LC-DIG-nclc-02146)

The Progressive Movement of the early twentieth century sought to correct the less happy consequences of industrialization. Published exposés and organized campaigns helped push governmental oversight, even in Virginia, into areas previously unregulated.

Tubize employee magazine, March 1931
The Tubize Chatillon Spinnerette
(Virginia Historical Society, Call number: HD9929.5 .R34 T88)

When the Hopewell United Textile Workers' Union organized at the Tubize plant in spring 1934, the company refused to recognize it. At hearings before the National Labor Board in June and July 1934, the company rejected mediation proposals and refused to reinstate fired workers and finally closed down the plant rather than negotiate with the union.

Gov. Bill Tuck
(Virginia Historical Society, Accession number: 1991.81.10)

In 1946, the employees who operated power plants and transmission for Virginia Electric and Power Co. were represented by the International Brotherhood of Electric Workers. In February 1946, with the contract expiring and wages demand not met, the IBEW announced it would walk out on April 1, 1946. Gov. Tuck declared, "I shall not sit idly by and do nothing."

The industrial union

The craft union and the industrial union are organized in different ways. The craft union brings together people with the same skill, like carpenters, who work for different companies. The industrial union brings the employees of a plant together in one unit that represents all the individual crafts and includes unskilled workers.

Right to Work

The "closed" versus "open" shop has always been an important issue for labor. In a closed shop, all employees must join the union. In an open shop employees are not required to join. Unions often view nonmembers as benefiting from collective bargaining. The open shop makes union organizing more difficult. "Right to work" describes state laws that require open shops.