Introduction

The Emancipation Proclamation, the Thirteenth Amendment, and the actions of enslaved men and women put an end to human bondage in this country. Nonetheless, in 1865 the specific rights entitled to former slaves remained undefined, and thus the exact legal nature of freedom remained unclear. However, freedmen voiced their opinions about the meaning of freedom, often drawing from their experiences under slavery.

Historical Context

With the assassination of Abraham Lincoln on 14 April 1865, Andrew Johnson became president. Unlike Lincoln, who had come to support limited suffrage for African Americans, Johnson opposed black voting in any form. And unlike many former abolitionists and Radical Republicans in Congress, Johnson did not believe that black suffrage should be a precondition for the southern states' readmission to the Union.

Over the course of the period known as Presidential Reconstruction, the tenuous nature of black freedom became apparent to many. In the fall of 1865, in the first elections since the end of the war, many former Confederates won office. Newly elected state legislatures enacted laws that defined black rights and responsibilities. These laws are often referred to as Black Codes. On the one hand, these codes affirmed the freedmen’s rights to own land, marry, make contracts, and testify in court. On the other hand, the laws were designed to stabilize black labor by restricting black mobility and economic opportunity. In Mississippi, African Americans were required to carry written evidence of their employment. In South Carolina, blacks who engaged in any occupation other than farm laborer or servant had to pay a special tax. Throughout the South, vagrancy laws were rewritten so that unemployed African Americans could be arrested, fined, and, if unable to pay a fine, leased to planters. A Virginia law defined as a vagrant anyone who failed to accept "the usual and common wages given to other laborers." Crimes such as petty theft became felonies, and those convicted faced long prison terms. Once in prison, convicts were leased to railroads and mining companies. Although many Freedmen's Bureau officers were sympathetic, they often placed planter demands for labor above the desires of the freedmen.

To many, Black Codes suggested the reinstitution of slavery. A growing number of northerners, both in and out of Congress, came to believe that the only way to ensure black freedom was through a guarantee of black rights. Congress sought to protect these rights, from both presidential vetoes and the actions of future legislatures, by writing them into the Constitution The Fourteenth Amendment, passed by Congress in June 1866, defined the rights of all citizens and guaranteed equality before the law. It also disfranchised some southerners who had fought for the Confederacy. The Fifteenth Amendment, passed by Congress in February 1869, extended the right to vote to African American males. It was ratified and became part of the Constitution in February 1870.

Archival Context

The Fifteenth Amendment, Celebrated May 19th 1870 has been in the collections of the Virginia Historical Society for a long time—longer than our current cataloging and accession policies have been in place. The date of accession is sometimes written on the back of a lithograph, and knowing that date helps curators (and educators) determine which accession book contains information about the item's provenance—the history of its ownership. In this case, we cannot determine the date of accession or how we acquired the item.

The Document

Click on image to enlarge

Lithography developed in the early nineteenth century. Unlike engraving (where the image is carved into a flat surface), or block printing (where the image is raised), lithography is a flat-surfaced printing technique. In creating this lithograph, a reverse image was drawn in grease on a flat stone. Water was spread over the stone, wetting only those areas without the grease. The surface was then rolled with ink, which adhered only to the grease. A sheet of paper was laid over the stone, and stone and paper were pressed together. The paper was then removed and allowed to dry.

The first lithographs were black and white. By the middle of the nineteenth century color lithography had been introduced. Colors were added one at a time, usually with the lighter colors applied first. This lithograph was hand colored. Although there are additional copies of The Fifteenth Amendment lithograph, their individual coloring makes each one unique.

The central image of this lithograph is entitled "Celebration of Fifteenth Amendment May 19th 1870," and depicts a parade held in Baltimore, Maryland. A series of sixteen smaller images, or vignettes, surround the central image. The captions of those images, beginning top center and proceeding clockwise, read as follows:

1. D[e]lany, D[o]uglass, Revels   2. We till our own fields   3. Colfax   4. We will protect our country as it defends our rights   5. John Brown   6. Freedom unites the family circle   7. The holy ordinances of religion are free  
8. Our representative sits in the national legislature   9. Ballot box is open to us   10. Liberty protects the marriage alt[a]r   11. Education will prove the equality of the races   12. A. Lincoln   13. Our charter of rights[:] the holy scripture   14. We unite in the bonds of fellowship with the whole human race   15. Grant   16. Proclamation / Lincoln

Several of the images depict heroes and leaders. Frederick Douglass was a former slave who became an outspoken abolitionist and leader. Martin Delany was an abolitionist who was often referred to as the "father of black nationalism." Hiram Revels was the first African American to serve in the United States Congress, entering the Senate on 23 February 1870. He is also the subject of vignette number eight. John Brown, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and Vice President Schuyler Colfax are also depicted.

Several other vignettes articulate notions of liberty and freedom in the context of slavery. The images celebrating marriage and the family allude to the ease with which enslaved families could be separated. References to the Bible and religion reflect African American identification with the plight of the Hebrews in Egypt and the theme of deliverance, as well as antebellum legal proscriptions against African American preachers. In the wake of Nat Turner's insurrection, the Virginia General Assembly forbade preaching by African Americans, demanded that slaves secure their owners' permission before attending religious services, and mandated that religious instruction only be given by licensed white ministers.

The image of the school and the caption "Education will prove the equality of the races" challenge slaveholder rationalizations of inherent black inferiority. This image also alludes to laws prohibiting black educational instruction, such as the 1848 Virginia law that prohibited the assembly of African Americans "for the purpose of instruction in reading and writing." Finally, the vignette with the caption "We till our own fields," refers to control of one's own labor and black aspirations for land.

Activities: Guiding the Analysis

1. Have your students examine the lithograph closely. What event do they think the central image commemorates?

2. Have your students examine the sixteen vignettes closely. How many people can they identify? Why do they think the artist chose to depict these individuals?

3. Have your students examine the vignettes and identify as many of the references as they can. As a class, make a list. Make sure your list includes the following items:
   •  Freedom to worship as one chooses
   •  Freedom to marry whom one chooses
   •  Freedom to seek an education
   •  Freedom to serve in political office
   •  Freedom to serve in the armed forces
   •  Freedom of association, to join organizations
   •  Freedom to own land and to profit from one's labor.
Ask why these freedoms would be important to former slaves. Have them research slavery and determine how each of these freedoms was denied enslaved people prior to 1865.

4. Have your students read the texts of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments. Then ask them to read the First Amendment. Ask them how the founders viewed Congress. Then, ask them how the authors of the Reconstruction amendments viewed Congress. Discuss why one group saw Congress as a threat to freedom while the second saw Congress as its guarantor.

Suggested Reading

• David Hackett Fischer. Liberty and Freedom: A Visual History of America's Founding Ideals.

• Eric Foner. A Short History of Reconstruction.

• Eric Foner. The Story of American Freedom.

• Eugene Genovese. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World The Slaves Made.

• Philip J. Schwarz. Slave Laws in Virginia.

• Philip J. Schwarz. Twice Condemned: Slaves and the Criminal Laws of Virginia, 1705–1865.

Standards of Learning

• VS.8a, VS.8b, USI.9f, USI. 10a, USI.10b, VUS.6c, VUS.7a, VUS.7b, VUS.7c